doi: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2012.03.010
- Making Crack With Levamisole Hcl Powder
- Making Crack With Baking Soda
- Making Crack With Levamisole Hcl For Fish
PMID: 22677078
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- Levamisole was originally used as an anthelmintic to treat worm infestations in both humans and animals. Levamisole works as a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist that causes continued stimulation of the parasitic worm muscles, leading to paralysis. In countries that still permit the use of levamisole.
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.
Abstract
Levamisole is an immunomodulatory agent that was used to treat various cancers before being withdrawn from the United States market in 2000 because of adverse effects. Levamisole is currently approved as an antihelminthic agent in veterinary medicine, but is also being used illicitly as a cocaine adulterant. Potential complications associated with use of levamisole-laced cocaine include neutropenia, agranulocytosis, arthralgias, retiform purpura, and skin necrosis. Treatment is primarily supportive, and skin lesions typically resolve with cessation of cocaine use. The incidence of hospitalizations related to use of levamisole-contaminated cocaine continues to increase and clinicians should be aware of the more common clinical manifestations.
![Hcl Hcl](/uploads/1/2/6/4/126464948/625157826.jpg)
Abbreviations and Acronyms: DEA, Drug Enforcement Administration; GC/MS, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
Cocaine use and its related complications are well-known public health issues. More than 5 million Americans use cocaine regularly via insufflation (snorting/sniffing), inhalation (smoking), and injection.1 Cocaine's effects on the health care system cross multiple medical disciplines, but clinicians may be less cognizant of the problems caused by some of the adulterants added to cocaine. Recent recognition of levamisole-induced agranulocytosis, vasculitis, and other complications, from contaminated cocaine, dictate that physicians be aware of these potential problems.
Since 2006, several cases of severe agranulocytosis associated with cocaine use have been reported.2,3 Epidemiological studies of initial cases reported by the New Mexico Department of Health found evidence of levamisole, an antihelminthic agent, in drug paraphernalia of cocaine users. Levamisole was also detected using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) in a postmortem blood specimen from a cocaine user who died of Serratia marcescens sepsis secondary to agranulocytosis. During the New Mexico investigation, public health officials in British Columbia and Alberta, Canada, also reported similar findings in cocaine users presenting with leukopenia. These findings were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Epi-X and poison control centers. Subsequently, similar cases of severe agranulocytosis were reported in Colorado and Washington. All patients admitted to recent cocaine use or tested positive for cocaine on a standard urine drug screen.
Concurrent with clinical reports of cocaine-related agranulocytosis, technical reports of levamisole-adulterated cocaine have appeared in the literature since 2002 (first reported by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration [DEA]). Outside of North America, published reports of levamisole detected by GC/MS in cocaine users appeared in Luxembourg and the United Kingdom in 2005.5,6 Similar findings in drug enforcement–seized cocaine shipments were reported around that time in the United States, Canada, Italy, and Australia.3,6
The concentration of levamisole in cocaine has steadily increased since it was first detected. The concentration was less than 1% in 2001,8 and in 2009, levamisole comprised approximately 10% of each cocaine sample.8 By July 2009, the DEA reported that 69% of cocaine entering the United States contained levamisole,9 while in the United Kingdom, levamisole was found in over 50% of cocaine samples tested.7 In an analysis of cocaine users in Seattle, Washington, approximately 80% of users who tested positive for cocaine also tested positive for levamisole. Levamisole is also used to adulterate other illicit substances; seized heroin supplies in 2008 and 2009 were found to contain trace amounts of levamisole.2,10
Making Crack With Levamisole Hcl Powder
Methods
We performed a PubMed search for the keywords levamisole, cocaine, vasculitis, pseudovasculitis, agranulocytosis, and retiform purpura. We reviewed all literature published between 1940 to 2011. Case series and reviews were given priority for inclusion in this review. Case reports were examined, but were only included in this article if they presented novel findings.
What is Levamisole?
Levamisole is a synthetic imidazothiazole derivative used for its immunomodulatory properties. Since the 1970s, it has been used for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis as a disease-modifying antirheumatic drug.11-13 In 1990, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved it for use with 5-fluorouracil for colon cancer treatment. However, levamisole was subsequently withdrawn from the United States and Canadian markets in 2000 and 2003, respectively, because of reports of agranulocytosis. Currently, it is primarily used as an antihelminthic medication in veterinary sciences. Outside of the United States, pediatric nephrologists use it as a steroid-sparing agent in childhood steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome.14-16
Levamisole acts as an immunomodulator and immunoenhancer by increasing macrophage chemotaxis and T-cell lymphocyte function.17 It has also been shown to stimulate neutrophil chemotaxis, up-regulate toll-like receptors, and enhance dendritic cell maturation.18-22 Notable adverse effects of levamisole include severe agranulocytosis, retiform purpura, and seizures.23-25
Levamisole's exact physiologic effect when used in combination with cocaine is unclear. One theory is that it potentiates the nicotinic acetylcholinergic effects of the central nervous system, thus prolonging cocaine-induced euphoria. Other studies have also found that levamisole is metabolized into aminorex, a substrate for serotonin transporters, thus possibly acting as an indirect serotonin agonist.27,28 Aminorex is known to cause pulmonary hypertension, although this adverse effect has not been definitively linked to levamisole-laced cocaine.
Levamisole's physical similarity to cocaine also allows it to act as a cutting or bulking agent, increasing the total weight of the sample and making the drug appear purer. Levamisole adulteration often occurs as part of the refining process of cocaine production. Levamisole additives are usually of pharmaceutical-grade quality, although impure levamisole has also been infrequently reported by DEA laboratories.9
Characteristics of Levamisole Toxicity
Patients with levamisole toxicity typically present with cutaneous manifestations consisting of large, painful hemorrhagic bullae and/or necrosis. The face is commonly affected, especially the bilateral helixes and cheeks (Figures 1 and 2). Similar bullae can present elsewhere on the body, with case reports documenting involvement of the abdomen, chest, lower back, buttocks, and legs. Retiform purpura with or without bullae may also be prominent.3,23,24 The pathologic mechanism of these symptoms is unclear, as some patients present with true vasculitis while others present with pseudovasculitis. Among the cases presenting as a true vasculitis, direct immunofluorescence findings suggest an immune complex–mediated vasculitis with vascular deposits of IgM, IgA, IgG, and C3, and vascular staining for fibrin.23,24,29,30 In addition to characteristic cutaneous manifestations, the majority of patients complain of arthralgias, most commonly involving the large joints. Ear, nose, and throat complaints are also common, as are feelings of generalized malaise and fatigue.
Left helix with hemorrhagic bullae. Suture on upper ear lobe is biopsy site.
Nasal tip with necrotic, hemorrhagic crust due to reexposure to levamisole-laced cocaine.
Laboratory findings include leukopenia, neutropenia, agranulocytosis, positive antinuclear antibody titers, positive anti-proteinase 3 titers, and positive perinuclear or cytoplasmic staining patterns for antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies. Absolute neutrophil counts ranging from 0 to 3000 have been reported, and these patients are at high risk of infection. Bone marrow biopsies from such patients have shown markedly decreased production of all cell lines. When positive, antinuclear antibody is often mildly or moderately elevated, most commonly in a speckled pattern. Anti–double-stranded DNA and lupus anticoagulant findings are also inconsistently positive in various case reports and series.23,24,32-36 Complement studies typically yield normal results, although mildly decreased levels of C4 and/or C3 have been reported. Urine toxicology studies are usually positive for cocaine and occasionally for levamisole.24,37,38 Levamisole may also be found on drug paraphernalia such as pipes, paper currency, or other tools used for smoking or snorting cocaine.
Antihuman elastase antibody is both sensitive and specific for levamisole-induced vasculitis. Hyponatremia has also been reported, and pulmonary hemorrhage and renal failure can also occur. Biopsy of cutaneous lesions reveals leukocytoclastic vasculitis, thrombotic microangiopathy, panniculitis, and/or gross necrosis. On renal biopsy of patients with acute kidney failure, pauci-immune focal necrotizing crescentic glomerulonephritis is found (Table).
TABLE
Common Clinical Manifestations and Laboratory Findings Associated With Levamisole Toxicity
Generalized malaise,23 fatigue,24,31 arthralgias31 |
Pulmonary hemorrhage,31 renal failure,31 seizures |
Skin necrosis,43 (hemorrhagic) bullae,23 retiform purpura33 (Figures 1 and 2) |
Leukopenia,28 neutropenia,29,36,37 agranulocytosis,33 hyponatremia39 |
Positive results for ANA,34 PR3,40,43 ANCAs,30,40 dsDNA,34 lupus anticoagulant,34 antihuman elastase antibody33 |
Urine toxicology studies positive for cocaine; occasionally positive for levamisole24,37,38 |
Detection of levamisole in urine with GC/MS41 |
ANA = antinuclear antibody; ANCA = antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; dsDNA = double-stranded DNA; PR3 = anti-proteinase 3; GC/MS = gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.
The natural progression of this condition is generally benign, as most symptoms will resolve without intervention. Complete cessation of cocaine use is absolutely necessary because symptoms can recur on rechallenge (Figure 2). Systemic infection in those with agranulocytosis may require hospitalization.
Public Awareness
Since 2007, clinical awareness of levamisole toxicity among clinicians has been increasing. Case reports and reviews of levamisole-induced agranulocytosis and vasculitis have appeared in internal medicine,40,41 emergency medicine, wound care, rheumatology,32,38 dermatology, allergy/immunology, nephrology, and cardiology27 journals. Improved detection methods using GC/MS on urine samples is being employed at some institutions. Utilizing GC/MS, levamisole was found in 68% of patients who tested positive for cocaine on standard urine toxicology screen.
Challenges
Levamisole-induced vasculitis and agranulocytosis may not be initially suspected if patients are not asked about illicit drug use or deny drug use when questioned. An astute clinician suspicious of this denial should always perform a urine drug toxicology screen because cocaine remains in the urine for 48 to 72 hours following use. Even with a positive cocaine screen, a definitive connection to levamisole may be difficult to establish because levamisole is rapidly absorbed and has a short half-life (5.5-6 hours). Alternatively, clinicians can test samples from drug paraphernalia (plastic bags previously containing cocaine/heroin, pipes, currency used for insufflation). Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry testing of patients' urine can also be used, although these techniques are expensive, time-consuming, and limited in availability.
Future Directions
With increasing amounts of levamisole contaminating worldwide cocaine supplies, clinicians may start to see levamisole-associated vasculitis and agranulocytosis more frequently. Because of the small number of cases reported, the medical community still lacks a definitive agreement on appropriate laboratory tests to perform for diagnosis, as well as appropriate treatment strategies. Clinicians suspecting levamisole-induced vasculitis should first order a urine toxicology screen to evaluate for cocaine or heroin. Other pertinent laboratory studies include complete blood cell count with differential to evaluate for leukopenia; renal and liver function tests to evaluate for evidence of renal and liver failure, respectively; antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies, antiphospholipid antibodies, cryoglobulins, and lupus anticoagulants to evaluate for evidence of other autoimmune diseases; and antihuman elastase antibody, which is both sensitive and specific for levamisole-induced vasculitis (Figure 3). Some patients have been treated with skin grafts, wound debridement, filgrastim, cyclosporine, mycophenolate, and observation with drug rehabilitation.31,37,38,46
Algorithm for diagnosis and evaluation of levamisole-induced vasculitis. ANCA = antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; +cANCA = ANCA with positive cytoplasmic staining pattern; +pANCA = ANCA with positive perinuclear staining pattern.
Improved reporting of cases to state public health departments and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention will help us to understand the true incidence and prevalence of this condition among cocaine users. Additionally, it is still unclear why only some cocaine users develop levamisole toxicity. Of those who develop this condition, some present in more severe forms with widespread vasculitis and necrosis, while others present with only mild cutaneous symptoms and arthralgias. Possible genetic risk factors influencing levamisole metabolism could play a role, as well as total volume of levamisole consumed.
Conclusion
Increased patient and physician awareness is essential to ensuring proper diagnosis and treatment of complications associated with the use of levamisole-contaminated cocaine. Misdiagnosis, or lack of diagnosis, often leads to unnecessary tests and health care expenses. Because cocaine and heroin supplies are likely to continually contain levamisole, it is important for clinicians and social workers caring for illicit drug users to recognize this recently characterized condition.
- ■ Over 5 million Americans abuse cocaine via insufflation (snorting), inhalation (smoking), and injection. The majority of cocaine in the United States is believed to be tainted with levamisole.
- ■ Levamisole is an immunomodulatory agent previously used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and various cancers before being withdrawn from the United States market in 2000.
- ■ Levamisole is currently approved as an antihelminthic agent in veterinary medicine, but is also being used illicitly as a cocaine adulterant or bulking agent, given its physical similarity to cocaine.
- ■ Levamisole toxicity is characterized by arthralgias, retiform purpura, and skin necrosis. Laboratory findings include neutropenia, positive perinuclear or cytoplasmic staining patterns for antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies, and positive antihuman elastase antibody.
- ■ Treatment of levamisole toxicity is primarily supportive, and skin lesions typically resolve with cessation of cocaine use.
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Alberta Cocaine Crisis[edit]
Somebody should add some information about the current crisis in Alberta with cocaine tainted with levamisole. 24.65.95.239 (talk) 20:28, 29 November 2008 (UTC)
-- Just found another article about Levamisole being a soft kill weapon added to the cocaine by eugenicists to cull the human herd. www.infowars.com/operation-softkill-street-drugs-used-for-population-control/ infowars.com is fringe, does not meet our sourcing guidelines and should not be used How did this potentially deadly combination magically become the cut of choice for two-thirds of America's cocaine?
Cocaine Laced With Cow-Worming Drug Sickens Americans (Update1) By Ellen Gibson Dec. 17 (Bloomberg) -- Two-thirds of cocaine smuggled into the U.S. is laced with a cattle-worming drug linked to a rare immune disorder in a rash of cases, a report says. The veterinary drug, levamisole, was connected to new cases of the immune disorder agranulocytosis in Canada a year ago. Public health officials in New Mexico and Washington now blame tainted cocaine for a cluster of 21 cases of the illness, including one death, according to the weekly morbidity and mortality report from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in Atlanta. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601124&sid=aN454DsoGaj4
Levamisole just so happens to have very nasty side effects to alcohol. http://www.answers.com/topic/levamisole which is important because cocaine users won't think twice of mixing cocaine and alcohol. If alcohol presents itself the cocaine user has a high probability of drinking.
—Preceding unsigned comment added by Oneil (talk • contribs) 05:12, 23 December 2009 (UTC)
- You could do it. Here are two good sources: [1][2] --64.180.31.86 (talk) 06:18, 1 December 2008 (UTC)
The customary dose for Levamisole when used in combination with 5-fluorouracil was 50mg 3x daily [PDR, 1996]. Not unlike other pharmaceuticals, it has adverse side effects that are more pronounced in proportion to overdose. It is interesting to note that current MSDS data sheets from MP Biomedicals are replete with dire warnings even though it was once administered to treat helminths, rheumatism, and tested on varieties of cancer. Getting back to its use as cutter stock for cocaine, the volume of drug that would be consumed to equal the daily dose of Levamisole is 300mg - assuming 50% Levamisole by weight. If it was severely cut, more than 50%, the dose would be pushed upward achieve the same effect from cocaine. It's hard to imagine why Levamisole would be used as cutter stock when there are other inert products available. The negative publicity handed out for Levamisole raises at least a couple of questions: 1.) Was Levamisole unexpectedly effective in the treatment of certain types of cancer and hence a threat to more profitable drugs? 2.) If doses significantly above 150mg of Levamisole are potentially toxic, wouldn't it be idiotic for a street-drug manufacturer/dealer to eradicate his customers? Neither of these questions rule out the possibility of rogue programs and pogroms being instigated by federal agencies - either side of the border. There remain many medications on the market despite even more injurious side effects, so the focus on Levamisole seems arbitrarily disproportionate. — Preceding unsigned comment added by VauschnVachs (talk • contribs) 04:52, 20 March 2011 (UTC)
Just be careful with the edits, i'm not sure if it was determined which enantiomer -levamisole or dextramisole - the cocaine was laced with. (and apparently, the two substances can have different effects). 198.103.172.9 (talk) 19:38, 2 January 2009 (UTC)
I am surprised that I found this page when I search for 'Decaris'. Decaris is a French painter and engraver (can be found on French Wikipedia). Nothing to do with levamisol ! Yet, I do not know how to correct this bug, the more as I did not found any reference to Decaris in the page.
Jmarc.boussard (talk) 16:35, 15 March 2009 (UTC)
melting point[edit]
This page previously reported the melting point of this substance to be sixty-one degrees celsius. It is not. Multiple sources report it to melt over a range of 226 to 233. I changed the entry in the drugbox template from 61 to 230 (If I list the full range, the template's algorithm converts it to negative 150 farenheit). The 170 degree error is not innocuous here, given this substance's application as a cocaine adulterant. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Trueno Peinado (talk • contribs) 23:56, 4 December 2009 (UTC)
According to DanceSafe, it is likely that Levamisole is used to cut cocaine instead of other substances because it stays mixed with the cocaine after an acid->base->acid purification cycle, unlike many other cuts, and thus gives the moderately industrious cocaine user the impression of a higher-quality product. Not sure how I should cite something out to a twitter account, though.208.54.15.83 (talk) 21:51, 17 March 2010 (UTC)
- That sounds like a believable explanation!
- One toxicological report found a cocaine user dead with levamisole, but also metoprolol, sertraline, and norsertraline in the blood. While the other alkaloids in one case can come from anywhere, it's worth noting that each of these has a secondary amine and looks pretty hydrophobic. I wonder if some cocaine cook is tossing in any colorless/tasteless alkaloid he can buy or steal. Interestingly this was another fatality (like [3]) in someone using alprazolam with levamisole...
- I was also curious whether levamisole has any effect on field testing of drugs, which I was wondering might be a factor (though obviously it can't be causing police too much trouble, if it's in more than half of the cocaine). The scheme they typically use is here, but I've pretty much abandoned the speculation.
- One forum I found looks worth watching in the hope a usable source will turn up, but I wouldn't bet money on it: [4]
- The DEA has a chart of the rate of levamisole in seizures (and much other useful analysis) at [5]. Note that one sample was found with 6% levamisole, but an additional 3% of a breakdown product produced by distilling levamisole to dryness while making crack. All the levamisole is of pharmaceutical grade, oddly enough.
- While much has been made of the 'expense' of this adulterant, I spotted one site saying it is available for export at $17.55 per kilogram.[6] We have to take a global view of the subject and remember that pharmaceuticals are cheap outside the U.S. Wnt (talk) 17:48, 1 June 2010 (UTC)
- The melting point has been changed again - please read my comments in the text. It's important, when citing melting points, to know if you're writing about the free base, or one of its stereoisomers (where applicable), or a particular salt. It's also useful to try to copy the data from a primary source, since secondary sources aren't always explicit on this issue. That said, a melting point isn't as important a criterion of purity as it once (up to about the third quarter of the 20thC) was. Chemists see significant discrepancies between different papers in the literature all the time. M.p.s still have their uses, but purity is better judged these days by chromatographic and spectroscopic methods.
[By the way (and absolutely no offence is intended), the word 'alkaloid' should only be applied to naturally-occurring bases, not synthetic compounds. It's a bit like calling a tennis racquet a 'bat'...]Xprofj (talk) 23:37, 4 May 2012 (UTC)
Enantiomers are mirror images... by definition stereochemically pure samples of both the R and S enantiomers will have the same mp (assuming identical crystallization conditions, etc.)L2OrganicChemistry71.202.140.109 (talk) 02:49, 31 July 2012 (UTC)
Levamisol or Levamisole?[edit]
Most other languages call this substance Levamisol. Google image search shows that Levamisol is what is printed on most packages. The first version of the article calls it Levamisole hydrochloride. Which one is correct? -- Petri Krohn (talk) 17:32, 12 March 2013 (UTC)
- Your question is a bit confused. In English, the drug is called 'levamisole'. English has this 'silent e' thing; other languages don't, and so yes it is called 'levamisol' in other languages. Many compounds can be made and stored and used in salt form or not, depending on what is needed. The chemical formula for levamisole is C11H12N2S. Levamisole HCL is a salt form of levamisole -- it is levamisole in solution with HCL. Its formula is C11H12N2S, HCL. Same API (active pharmaceutical ingredient), different form. Jytdog (talk) 18:38, 12 March 2013 (UTC)
anonymous postcard on 'the stranger 'slog' blog a reliable source?[edit]
This article currently states: 'In response to the dangers, The Stranger, People's Harm-Reduction Alliance and DanceSafe began producing tests to identify levamisole's presence in cocaine. The kits include a survey postcard, and one revealed its presence in a 1/4-kg block of cocaine, indicating both users and dealers were using the kits.'
Making Crack With Baking Soda
I checked the source, and while it does make the claim, it offers no proof that quantity of cocaine was actually tested:
'Levamisole* is still in the world's cocaine supply and our levamisole test kits—which The Stranger, along with the People's Harm-Reduction Alliance and DanceSafe, first launched into the world in 2010—are still around, too.
The anonymous, pre-stamped survey postcards that come with the kits still trickle in from time to time. Today, one arrived that was a little different. It wasn't from an individual user testing a little baggy—this person tested a larger quantity of cocaine. (A quarter kilo? Four kilos? Fourteen kilos?) It had all been cut with levamisole.
levamkilo080_black.jpgTHE STRANGER
In a way, this is exactly what I'd hoped would happen—that levamisole and awareness of its potentially dangerous effects would first start to worry customers, who would then mention that to their dealers, who would pass the concern up the chain. Two years ago, almost nobody had heard of levamisole. Now, at least one person with quantity took the time to get a kit and test his/her product—and make a frowny-face emoticon because it tested positive.'
Maybe whoever sent in the postcard lied and wrote some BS and 'the stranger' jumped at the chance to toot their own horn on their blog? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.79.92.24 (talk) 05:08, 1 November 2013 (UTC)
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Making Crack With Levamisole Hcl For Fish
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